Affirmative Action has been used since 1961 to expand opportunity and promote equality.

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1979 Executive Order 12138
President Jimmy Carter issued E.O. 12138, creating a National Women's Business Enterprise Policy and requiring each agency to take affirmative action to support women's business enterprises.

1979 AFL-CIO v. Weber
The Supreme Court ruled that race-conscious affirmative action efforts designed to eliminate a conspicuous racial imbalance in an employer's workforce resulting from past discrimination are permissible if they are temporary and do not violate the rights of white employees.

1978 Regents of University of California v. Bakke
The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the use of race as one factor in choosing among qualified applicants for admission. At the same time, it also ruled unlawful the University Medical School's practice of reserving 18 seats in each entering class of 100 for disadvantaged minority students.

1978 Affirmative Action Upeld in 1978
The Supreme Court, in the Regents of the University of California v. Bakke case, upholds the principle of affirmative action but rejects fixed racial quotas as unconstitutional. The case involves Alan Bakke, denied a slot at the University of California medical school at Davis. Bakke claims he is a victim of reverse discrimination because a minority student, with lower test scores, is admitted instead on affirmative action grounds.

1973 Nixon Issues Timetables Memorandum
The Nixon administration issued "Memorandum-Permissible Goals and Timetables in State and Local Government Employment Practices," distinguishing between proper goals and timetables and impermissible quotas.

1971 Executive Order 11625
President Nixon issued E.O. 11625, directing federal agencies to develop comprehensive plans and specific program goals for a national Minority Business Enterprise (MBE) contracting program.

1971 Amendment to Order No. 4
Order No. 4 was revised to include women.

1970 Order No. 4
The Labor Department, under President Richard M. Nixon, issued Order No.4, authorizing flexible goals and timetables to correct "underutilization" of minorities by federal contractors.

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