Affirmative Action has been used since 1961 to expand opportunity and promote equality.
2000 - current | 1990-1999 | 1980-1989 | 1970-1979 | 1960-1969 | Show All
2005 Michigan's Anti-Affirmative Campaign Submits Signatures
Ward Connerly's Michigan Civil Rights Initiative campaign submits signatures in an attempt to place an anti-affirmative action initiative on the ballot for November 2006. Michigan law requires 320,000 valid signatures in order to qualify an initiative for ballot. Connerly's group claims to have about 500,000 signatures. Civil rights groups criticize Connerly's efforts in Michigan because it denies access to equal opportunity. Furthermore, Connerly's group has come under attack due to evidence that the campaign's money comes from out-of-state donors.
2003 Californians Defeat Proposition 54
Californians vote to defeat Proposition 54, the so-called "Racial Privacy Initiative." The measure is voted down during California's special recall election, with 64 percent of the voters saying "no" and only 36 percent voting "yes."
2003 Anti-Proposition 54 Campaign Launched Online
Americans for a Fair Chance and the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights Education Fund launch an online campaign to educate the public about the dangers of CRECNO, which has been designated "Proposition 54" on the October 7, 2003, gubernatorial recall ballot.
2003 Anti-Affirmative Action Efforts Grow
In the wake of the Supreme Court's ruling that race-based affirmative action is permissible, anti-affirmative-action foes try to use voter-based initiatives to overturn affirmative action in selected states. Ward Connerly announces that he is spearheading efforts in Michigan and Colorado to put anti-affirmative-action referenda to votes. Connerly is also promoting the California Classification of Race, Ethnicity and National Origin Initiative (CRECNO), which would make the collection of any data on racial and ethnic information illegal for the University of California and other state government agencies. CRENO is scheduled for a statewide vote in the upcoming fall.
2003 U.S. Supreme Court Reaffirms Affirmative Action
The Supreme Court reaffirms that universities may take race into consideration as one factor among many factors when selecting incoming students. In a 5 to 4 opinion written by Justice O'Connor, the Supreme Court in Grutter v. Bollinger, supported the University of Michigan Law School's affirmative action program and specifically endorsed Justice Powell's view in 1978's Regents of the University of California v. Bakke that student body diversity is a compelling state interest that can justify using race in university admissions. The Supreme Court thus resolved a split among the lower courts as to Bakke's value as binding precedent.
2003 Supreme Court Hears Oral Arguments
The Supreme Court allows the Bush administration to present its views during the April 1 oral arguments in the Michigan case. The court rejects a similar request from minority students contending that race-conscious policies are needed to remedy past discrimination.
2003 Record Number of Briefs Filed in Support of Michigan
Hundreds of groups and individuals file friend-of-the-court briefs in the Michigan case before the Supreme Court's midnight deadline. Briefs supporting the university outnumber those supporting the white students by more than 3-to-1.
2003 Bush Administration Opposes University of Michigan Policies
The Bush Administration filed a brief with the U.S. Supreme Court opposing the affirmative action policies of the University of Michigan and urged that the policies be declared unconstitutional. Bush's position was condemned by LCCR and the civil rights community.
2002 Supreme Court To Hear Michigan Cases
The U.S. Supreme Court announced that it would hear two cases, Gratz v. Bollinger and Grutter v. Bollinger, involving the use of race-conscious affirmative action at the University of Michigan. The Court is expected to hear oral arguments in early Spring 2003.
2002 Sixth Circuit Upholds Use of Race in Grutter v. Bollinger
In a landmark decision, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit upheld the constitutionality of the use of race as a factor for admission to the University of Michigan Law School. This decision, in Grutter v. Bollinger, sets a strong precedent for supporters of affirmative action and other programs that aim to promote equal opportunity and increase diversity in higher education.
2001 Supreme Court Looks at Federal Contracting Programs
The Supreme Court considered a challenge to federal contracting programs in the fall of 2001 in Adarand II, when it heard an appeal to the Tenth Circuit's determination that the Department of Transportation's revised Disadvantaged Business Enterprise program was constitutional. On November 27, 2001, the high court said that it was dismissing the appeal because the company challenging the program had changed its argument since it filed the appeal, and lower courts had not had the opportunity to review the new argument.
2001 Supreme Court To Review Court Decisions
The Court has is asked to review conflicting appellate court decisions on the use of affirmative action in higher education admissions decisions.
2001 Split at the Circuit Court Level
In Smith v. University of Washington, (9th Cir. 2000) the 9th Circuit upheld the university's affirmative action program, although the program could no longer be used after the passage of Initiative 200. On the other hand, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals followed the 5th Circuit in Hopwood and declared the University of Georgia affirmative action program unconstitutional in Johnson v. Regents of the University of Georgia, (S.D. Ga. 2000).
2001 California Enacts New Higher Education Plan
California enacts a new plan allowing the top 12.5% of high school students admission to the UC system, either for all four years or after two years outside the system, and guaranteeing the top 4% of all high school seniors admission into the UC system.
2001 Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Mineta
The Supreme Court dismisses this case as "improvidently granted", thereby leaving undisturbed the 10th Circuit's decision, which upheld the government's revised federal contracting program.
2000 New Labor Regulations
In an effort to promote equal pay, the US Department of Labor promulgated new affirmative action regulations including an Equal Opportunity Survey, which requires federal contractors to report hiring, termination, promotions and compensation data by minority status and gender. This is the first time in history that employers have been required to report information regarding compensation by gender and minority status to the federal equal employment agencies.
2000 Florida Bans Affirmative Action
Florida legislature passes "One Florida" Plan, banning affirmative action. The program also included the Talented 20% Plan that guarantees the top 20% admission to the University of Florida system.
2000 Circuit Courts Hear Higher Education Cases
Many Circuit Courts throughout the country heard cases regarding affirmative action in higher education, including the 5th Circuit in Texas (Hopwood), the 6th Circuit in Michigan (Grutter and Gratz), the 9th Circuit in Washington (Smith), and the 11th Circuit in Georgia (Johnson). The same District Court in Michigan made two different rulings regarding affirmative action in Michigan, with one judge deciding that the undergraduate program was constitutional while another judge found the law school program unconstitutional.
1998 Negative Effects of Affirmative Action Ban
Ban on use of affirmative action in admissions at the University of California goes into effect. UC Berkeley had a 61% drop in admissions of African American, Latino/a and Native American students, and UCLA had a 36% decline.
1998 Initiative 200
Voters in Washington passed Initiative 200 banning affirmative action in higher education, public contracting, and hiring.
1998 House and Senate Uphold Specific Programs
Both the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate have thwarted recent attempts to eliminate specific affirmative action programs. First both houses rejected amendments to abolish the Disadvantaged Business Enterprise program funded through the Transportation Bill, and then the House rejected an attempt to eliminate use of affirmative action in admissions in higher education programs funded through the Higher Education Act.
1997 Texas Ten Percent Plan
In response to Hopwood, the Texas legislature passed the Texas Ten Percent Plan, which ensures that the top ten percent of students at all high schools in Texas have guaranteed admission to the University of Texas and Texas A&M system, including the two flagships, UT-Austin and A&M College Station.
1997 Supreme Court Refuses to Challenge Prop. 209
The U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear a challenge to California's Prop. 209. By declining to review the case, the court did not decide the case on its merits but allowed Prop. 209 to go into effect.
1997 Support for Affirmative Action in Houston
Voters in Houston supported affirmative action programs in city contracting and hiring by rejecting an initiative that would banish such efforts. Houston proved that the wording on an initiative is a critical factor in influencing the voters' response. Instead of deceptively focusing attention on "preferential treatment, " voters were asked directly if they wanted to "end affirmative action programs. " They said no.
1997 House Judiciary Committee Upholds Affirmative Action Program
The U.S. House Judiciary Committee voted 17-9, on a bipartisan basis, to defeat legislation aimed at dismantling federal affirmative action programs for women and minorities. Representative George Gekas (R-Pa.), who moved to table the bill, said that the bill was "useless and counterproductive I fear that forcing the issue at this time could jeopardize the daily progress being made in ensuring equality."
1997 Bill Lee Appointed Acting Assistant Attorney General
Bill Lann Lee was appointed Acting Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights after facing opposition to his confirmation because of his support for affirmative action when he worked for the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund.
1996 Texas v. Hopwood
The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit ruled against the University of Texas, deciding that its law school's policy of considering race in the admissions process was a violation of the Constitution's equal-protection guarantee. The U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal of the ruling because the program at issue was no longer in use.
1996 Proposition 209
California's Proposition 209 passed by a narrow margin in the November election. Prop. 209 abolished all public-sector affirmative action programs in the state in employment, education and contracting. Clause (C) of Prop. 209 permits gender discrimination that is "reasonably necessary" to the "normal operation" of public education, employment and contracting.
1996 California Abolishes Affirmative Action Programs
5 November, in California, the controversial Proposition 209, also known as the California Civil Rights Initiative, was passed by a narrow voter margin or 55-45. The legislation of Prop. 209 effectively abolished California's affirmative action programs in hiring, contracting, and educational admissions. Other initiatives have spread to numerous cities and states across he United States. Legislation has been introduced in the House and Senate with the similar agenda of wiping out all federal affirmative action programs.
1995 Racial Classification Laws Put Under "Strict Scrutiny"
In Adarand, the Supreme Court ruled in a 5-4 vote for the first time that all federal laws creating racial classifications, regardless of an intention to burden or benefit minorities, when challenged, must be tested by the same stringent standard. Federal set- aside and affirmative action programs benefitting minorities then are subject to strict scrutiny and must be narrowly tailored.
1995 University of California Bans Affirmative Action
The Regents of the University of California voted to end all affirmative action programs at all University of California campuses. Beginning in 1997 for graduate schools and 1998 for undergraduate admissions, officials at the University were no longer allowed to use race, gender, ethnicity or national origin as a factor in admissions decisions.
1995 Equal Opportunity Act
Senator Robert Dole and Representative Charles Canady introduced the so-called Equal Opportunity Act in Congress. The act would prohibit race- or gender-based affirmative action in all federal programs.
1995 Clinton Supports Affirmative Action
President Bill Clinton reviewed all affirmative action guidelines by federal agencies and declared his support for affirmative action programs by announcing the Administration's policy of "mend it, don't end it."
1995 Affirmative Action as a Tool to Ensure Equality
The bipartisan Glass Ceiling Commission released a report on the endurance of barriers that deny women and minorities access to decision-making positions and issued a recommendation "that corporate America use affirmative action as a tool ensuring that all qualified individuals have equal access and opportunity to compete based on ability and merit."
1994 Adarand Constructors v. Pena
The Supreme Court held that a federal affirmative action program remains constitutional when narrowly tailored to accomplish a compelling government interest - such as remedying discrimination.
1991 Bush Tries to End Affirmative Action Programs
After two years of debate, vetoes and threatened vetoes, Bush reverses himself and says proposed civil rights bill is not a "quota bill." On Nov. 22, he signs the legislation at a White House ceremony. But ceremony is overshadowed by reports that the president has proposed issuing a presidential order that would end all government affirmative action programs and hiring guidelines that benefit women and minorities. After sharply negative reactions from civil rights leaders and others, the administration backs down.
1989 Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.
The Supreme Court struck down Richmond's minority contracting program as unconstitutional, requiring that a state or local affirmative action program be supported by a "compelling interest" and be narrowly tailored to ensure that the program furthers that interest.
1987 Johnson v. Transportation Agency, Santa Clara County
The Supreme Court ruled that a severe under representation of women and minorities justified the use of race or sex as "one factor" in choosing among qualified candidates.
1986 Local 28 of the Sheet Metal Workers' Int. Ass'n v. EEOC
The Supreme Court upheld a judicially-ordered 29% minority "membership admission goal" for a union that had intentionally discriminated against minorities, confirming that courts may order race- conscious relief to correct and prevent future discrimination.
1985 Preservation of E.O. 11246
Efforts by some in the Reagan administration to repeal Executive Order 11246 were thwarted by defenders of affirmative action, including other Reagan administration officials and members of Congress from both parties.
1983 Executive Order 12432
President Ronald Reagan issued E.O. 12432, which directed each federal agency with substantial procurement or grant making authority to develop a Minority Business Enterprise (MBE) development plan.
1982 Discrimination Against Gays Illegal in WI
Wisconsin becomes the first state to adopt a civil rights law prohibiting discrimination against gay people.
1979 Executive Order 12138
President Jimmy Carter issued E.O. 12138, creating a National Women's Business Enterprise Policy and requiring each agency to take affirmative action to support women's business enterprises.
1979 AFL-CIO v. Weber
The Supreme Court ruled that race-conscious affirmative action efforts designed to eliminate a conspicuous racial imbalance in an employer's workforce resulting from past discrimination are permissible if they are temporary and do not violate the rights of white employees.
1978 Regents of University of California v. Bakke
The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the use of race as one factor in choosing among qualified applicants for admission. At the same time, it also ruled unlawful the University Medical School's practice of reserving 18 seats in each entering class of 100 for disadvantaged minority students.
1978 Affirmative Action Upeld in 1978
The Supreme Court, in the Regents of the University of California v. Bakke case, upholds the principle of affirmative action but rejects fixed racial quotas as unconstitutional. The case involves Alan Bakke, denied a slot at the University of California medical school at Davis. Bakke claims he is a victim of reverse discrimination because a minority student, with lower test scores, is admitted instead on affirmative action grounds.
1973 Nixon Issues Timetables Memorandum
The Nixon administration issued "Memorandum-Permissible Goals and Timetables in State and Local Government Employment Practices," distinguishing between proper goals and timetables and impermissible quotas.
1971 Executive Order 11625
President Nixon issued E.O. 11625, directing federal agencies to develop comprehensive plans and specific program goals for a national Minority Business Enterprise (MBE) contracting program.
1971 Amendment to Order No. 4
Order No. 4 was revised to include women.
1970 Order No. 4
The Labor Department, under President Richard M. Nixon, issued Order No.4, authorizing flexible goals and timetables to correct "underutilization" of minorities by federal contractors.
1969 TEST Students Are Active in Civil Rights Movement
February 1, Lunch counter sit-in by four college students in Greensboro, N.C. begins and spreads through the South. On April 17, the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) is founded.
1968 Desegregation of Southern Schools Required
The Supreme Court, in Green v. County School Board of New Kent County (Virginia), rules that "actual desegregation" of schools in the South is required, effectively ruling out so- called school "freedom of choice" plans and requiring affirmative action to achieve integrated schools.
1967 La Rasa Unida Political Party
Jose Angel Gutierrez founds the Mexican American Youth Organization in San Antonio, Texas. The group would become over time La Rasa Unida Party, the first Chicano political party.
1967 Amendment to E.O. 11246
President Johnson amended E.O. 11246 to include affirmative action for women; federal contractors now required to make good-faith efforts to expand employment opportunities for women and minorities
1965 Executive Order 11246
President Lyndon B. Johnson issued E.O. 11246, requiring all government contractors and subcontractors to take affirmative action to expand job opportunities for minorities. Established Office of Federal Contract Compliance (OFCC) in the Department of Labor to administer the order.
1964 24th Amendment outlaws poll taxes for national elections.
The Twenty-Fourth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States bans the use of the poll tax in federal elections (a device imposed by some states to circumvent the Fifteenth Amendment guarantee of equal voting rights). Intended to alleviate the burdens of black and poor citizens, it states that in any presidential or congressional election, no citizen can be denied, by the state or federal government, the right to vote because of failure to pay either a poll tax or any other tax.
1964 Civil Rights Act of 1964
Landmark legislation prohibiting employment discrimination by large employers (over 15 employees), whether or not they have government contracts. Established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).
1963 MLK Jr. Awarded Nobel Peace Prize
Martin Luther King Jr., receives the Nobel Peace Prize.
1961 Affirmative Action Used for the First Time
President John F. Kennedy's Executive Order (E.O.) 10925 used affirmative action for the first time by instructing federal contractors to take "affirmative action to ensure that applicants are treated equally without regard to race, color, religion, sex, or national origin." Created the Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity.
1960 Several African Countries Win Independence
Following Sudan (1956) and Ghana (1957), 11 African nations achieve independence.
1960 John F. Kennedy Wins Presedential Elections
After presenting a campaign emphasizing civil rights John F. Kennedy elected president.
1959 The first two Asian Americans to serve in Congress
Alaska and Hawaii are admitted as states. Hawaii, the 50th state, elects Hiram Fong (of Chinese ancestry) and Daniel Inouye (of Japanese ancestry) to represent them in Congress, the first two Asian Americans to serve in that body.
1948 Democratic party endorses civil rights platform
Democratic party endorses civil rights platform, prompting Southern walkout and formation of States Rights Democratic Party (better known as the Dixiecrats) and nomination of Strom Thurmond as presidential candidate.
1947 First African American to play major league baseball
Jackie Robinson becomes first African American to play major league baseball.
1939 The NAACP Legal Defense Fund established
The Legal Defense Fund established as the legislative arm of the NAACP. A year later the two become separate organizations.
1917 Jones Act grants full citizenship to Puerto Ricans
The Jones Act grants full citizenship to Puerto Ricans and gives them the right to travel freely to the continental United States. However, because Puerto Rico is not a state, like citizens in the District of Columbia, Puerto Ricans are represented in Congress by a delegate with only limited powers and are unrepresented in the Senate.
1916 First woman elected to Congress
Rep. Jeannette Rankin (R-Mont.) Becomes first woman elected to Congress.
1910 NAACP is founded
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is founded by W.E.B Du Bois, Jane Addams, John Dewey and others.
1910 Influx of Mexican immigrants to the U.S.
The Mexican Revolution brings an influx of immigrants to the United States looking for work.
1890 Treaty with China allows unrestricted immigration into U.S
Treaty with China allows unrestricted immigration of Chines into the country, primarily as laborers on railroads in the West
1890 Battle of Wounded Knee
In the Battle of Wounded Knee, U.S. troops kill 200 Dakota Indian men, women, and children in the last conflict of the so-called "Indian Wars."
1876 Battle of Little Big Horn
Sioux and Cheyenne Indians win Battle of Little Big Horn, killing Gen. George Custer. The battle is an outgrowth of continued U.S. violation of the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty as white settlers flock to the sacred Black Hills seeking gold.
1873 First community welfare organizations appear in Southwest
The first community welfare organizations, or "mutualistas" spring up In the Southwest. Primarily social organizations, they also provide decent burials for poor Chicanos and address dealing with abusive police or politicians.
1865 The Civil War ends
The Civil War ends. Lincoln assassinated (April 15). Freedman's Bureau, to help former slaves, established. Ku Klux Klan organize in Pulaski, Tenn. The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution is ratified stating that "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude....shall exist" in the United States.
1861 The Civil War begins
The Civil War begins.
1848 Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo
Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo cedes Arizona, Texas, California, New Mexico, Colorado and parts of Utah and Nevada to the United States for $15 million. Article IX guarantees Mexican -origin people "the enjoyment of all the rights of the citizens of the United States according to the principles of the constitution."
1789 The Constitution adopted
Constitution adopted; slaves counted as three-fifths of a person for means of representation.
1775 Thomas Paine's African Slavery in America published
Abolitionist Thomas Paine's African Slavery in Americapublished in the Pennsylvania Journal and the Weekly Advertiser.
2000 - current | 1990-1999 | 1980-1989 | 1970-1979 | 1960-1969 | Show All
